The shift to multi-die assemblies is forcing changes in how chips are tested and inspected in order to achieve sufficient yield ramp or respond more quickly to yield excursions.
Physical defects like shorts and opens may occur during any step of the fabrication process. Well-known fault models like stuck-at (SA), 1 transition (TR), 2 N-detect (ND), 3 gate-exhaustive (GE), 4 ...